Virtue Ethics Essay Example for Free

Virtue Ethics Essay Virtue ethics is a moral philosophy that encompasses morality, defined by values which are identified and classified by a range of character traits. Aristotle is the founding father of most virtue ethics theories, while some versions have incorporated Plato, Kant and Hume their contributions to the theory of virtue ethics is less emphasized (Athanassouulis, 2006). Virtue theory is often thought of as a dynamic theory of how to conduct business activities (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 157). Virtues are acquired character traits that help people fit into society. Acquiring virtuous qualities is necessary to achieve success. According to Grenz Smith (2003): Virtue ethics is defined as an, inner disposition to perform morally right acts of a certain kind; the tendency to act rightly by habit in a particular manner; a character trait that is deemed morally praiseworthy. The virtues have also been understood to be those qualities of character that make a person morally successful. Ethicists in both the Greek and Christian moral traditions have sought to determine what traits are virtues. Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in virtues, especially with the renaissance in virtue ethics or the ethic of being (p. 125). Other definitions of virtue ethics have been described as positive traits which promote health, harmony, and balance (Engel, 2000). A virtue is an acquired quality of character that allows one to achieve personal happiness. Velasquez, Shanks, Andre and Meyer (1988) illustrated that a person that has developed the virtue of generosity is often referred to as a generous person because he or she tends to be generous in all circumstances (no page). Velasquez, Shanks, Andre, and Meyer’s interpretation of virtue ethics reinforces Aristotle’s earlier theory that once virtuosity is acquired it is maintained by repetition (1988, no page). People are by nature creatures of habit. Therefore, in order to become virtuous it is necessary to repeat virtuous acts so those acts become habits. The opposite of virtues are vices, which are negative traits that detract from health, harmony and balance. According to Engel (2000) a â€Å"vice is an unbalanced virtue which needs to be brought back to center† (no page). A vice can either be a lack of effort or an act of self indulgence. Vices are caused by impulses which are not regulated by virtues and many times the individual is unaware of their emotions (Engel, 2000, no page). Virtues and vices must work together and balance out. On a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being extreme, a person who values the virtue of honesty and vows to always tell the truth no matter the circumstance or situation lacks harmony and balance. Honesty can be taken to an extreme 10 whereby one says everything from one’s mind without any consideration or using tact (Engel, 2000, no page). On the other hand one can be an extreme 1 where the individual does not ever tell the truth. It is important to understand that being an extreme 1 or 10 on any virtuous scale is not a good thing. Aristotle is the father of virtue ethics theories; he studied ethics in a broad sense. He defined virtues of character as dispositions to act in certain ways in response to similar situations (Engel, 2000, no page). Based on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, things of any variety have a characteristic function that they are properly used to perform (Kemerling, 1997). The good for human beings must involve the entire proper function of human life as a whole (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 350 B. C. ). Aristotle also gave consideration to the aspects of human nature involved in acting and accepting moral responsibility. Aristotle’s philosophy of virtue ethics emphasizes that acting virtuous is a habit not an act. â€Å"We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit† (Landauer Rowlands, 2001). For example, individuals that consistently practice the virtue of being fair will continuously expound their knowledge of fairness in every aspect of life. Blackburn (2001) pointed out that Aristotle emphasized becoming virtuous requires education and practice (p. 113). Moral character must be taught and instilled gradually. Aristotle’s theory of virtue applies accordingly to today’s business activities by implying to be virtuous requires extreme repetition, dedication and understanding of morality. Morality is a major component of virtue ethics. Grenz Smith defined morality as, â€Å"Determining what is believed to be right and good, then living out those beliefs† (2003, p. 77). The word ethics has often been used as a synonym for morality (Frankena, 1980, p. 3). According to Frankena, conceptual thinking and analysis seek to clarify moral concepts like virtue to elucidate the logic of moral reasoning (1980, p.4). Morality has been referred to as an action guide or standard of conduct. What Makes Us Moral? Authored by Levy (2004) described â€Å"morality as a system of prescriptions that are held to be conditionally binding upon all rational agents† (p. 41). Most often morality is deemed as a type of character formation which determines how people should act and shape their lives (Frankena, 1980, p19). Essentially morality has been linked synonymously with moral judgment. Hollinger referred to moral judgment as a behavior in which people have a sense of oughtness and obligation (2002, p. 13). Moral judgment involves those decisions in particular situations where one choice may be better or worse than another. According to Cothran (2006), determining what is moral or immoral comes from either the understanding of new information or the application of information (p. 34). It is out of a sense of obligation, and knowing right from wrong that has caused people to debate the morality of an issue. Halberstam (1993) proposed that there are three basic confusions about moral judgment (p. 146). First, morality is not a matter of taste. Second, moral judgments are not social judgments. Lastly, being moral does not equate to acting legally. How people choose to deal with issues tells the world who they are. How do you make a moral decision? You can flip a coin. You can roll dice. Usually people go with their gut instincts. Moral reflection is essentially self actualization which compels people to analyze their decisions. Typically people debate about social issues such as abortion, euthanasia, and everyday personal concerns. These issues are moral judgments not a matter of taste or preference. Americans have enacted laws based on moral concerns not matters of taste. Moral issues are routinely taken to Congress in order to enact laws concerning American citizens. Halberstam (1993) stated, â€Å"If moral views were arbitrary inclinations, we wouldn’t bother trying to get others to see our way† (p. 147). Many people confuse moral judgments with social judgments. Halberstam (1993) researched Southeast Asians cuisine and found many Asians consider monkey brains to be a delicacy (p. 148). Asians frequently dine on monkey brains, which most Americans would find repulsive. However, consumption of monkey brains is no more a moral repulsion than consumption of fried chickens. The issue of whether or not to dine on monkey brains would usually be considered a social judgment not a moral judgment (Halberstam, 1993, p. 148). However, if a particular culture worshiped monkeys then the issue could be considered a moral judgment. Moral judgments, unlike matters of taste are supported by reason (Halberstam, 2003, p. 147). People are allowed to prefer a certain food over another, the same as they are allowed to prefer wearing clothes made by a particular designer over another. An example of moral judgment would be presented if a designer employed children in sweatshops to make his or her clothes. The buyer would then have the burden of deciding whether it is morally correct to continue to purchase the designer’s clothing. The buyer’s decision would be based on his or her moral beliefs. Moral beliefs are inner beliefs that ultimately guide outward actions. Morality isn’t a matter of personal taste or social standards. It really isn’t a matter of the law, either. Morality and the law are often connected. Fried (1978) pointed out in Right and Wrong, â€Å"Rights are to be used, and there are moral judgments to be made, judgments of the good and bad, better and worse, regarding the enjoyment of these rights† (p. 171). For example some comedians tell sexist and ethnic jokes. Legally the comedian has a right to free speech, however those jokes may be considered morally offensive. In most societies people want the law to reflect morality, but there is a fine line between the two. Lying is morally wrong, but unless you lie on a witness stand it’s not illegal (Halbestam, 2003, p. 151). Therefore most people haven chosen not to make being a liar an illegal act; only to question the morality and character of people that lie. Cohen (2002) stated, â€Å"Most of the world’s misery can be traced back to a lack of virtue† (p. 21). The main virtues that support business transactions are: integrity, honesty, trust, fairness, and moral leadership (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 157). Lack of any of the previously mentioned virtues can severely hinder and harm a business. According to Lewis (1991) in A Question of Vales: Six Ways We Make The Personal Choices That Shape Our Lives, virtuosity has been closely linked to emotion, â€Å"Although we do not usually associate feeling with thinking or judging we actually judge through our emotions all the time† (p. 10). Being honest and truthful has been found to be the most emotionally challenged and judged virtue. Integrity incorporates a broad range of ethical characteristics. Plante (2004) defined integrity as â€Å"following high standards of honesty, justice, and fairness; having completeness or wholeness† (p. 40). You could say that to maintain integrity is to avoid situations that violate your sense of completeness or wholeness. Here’s an example to illustrate the principle of integrity. You are a lawyer with a firm and you are propositioned by a client to do legal work outside of the firm. You feel this opportunity may help you advance in your career. Also the likelihood of anyone finding out about this business transaction is unlikely. If you were a person of integrity what would you do? I you value the virtue of integrity you would likely decline the offer, due to your loyalty and commitment to the firm. Individuals that value integrity usually value honesty as well. On the other hand individuals that have not fully developed their sense of virtue emotionally agonize between being truthful and being dishonest. Grenz Smith (2003) defined honesty as â€Å"being devoted to the truth and truthfulness: (p. 53). As a virtue honesty gives rise both to pursing the truth and being truthful (Grenz Smith, 2003, p.54). Even in difficult situations a truly virtuous person will always be honest. Trust is a virtue defined as a â€Å"predisposition to place confidence in the behavior of others while taking the risk that the expected behavior will not be performed â€Å"(Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 158). Businesses that posse the virtue of trust eliminate the need for excessive monitoring and precise contracts and agreements (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 158). Businesses that have complete trust convey reliability and integrity to their consumers and counterparts. Fairness is a virtue that focuses on the disposition to deal equitably with the perceived injustices of others (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 158). According to Grenz Smith (2003) fairness is a principle of justice that asserts that all persons in a particular group ought contribute to and share in the benefits that accrue to the group in a manner that is equitable when measured according to an assumed or agreed standard. Fairness often relates to doing the right thing in any given situation. In sales and marketing environments associates often have collective team and individual objectives or sales goals to meet monthly. In order to make the sales objectives fair, upper management assess multiple components, such as the number of sales associates on a team and the amount of sales experience of each individual. It would be unfair for an associate with one month of experience to have the same goals as an associate with one year of service. It would also be unfair for a team of 6 members to have the same sales goals as a team with 10 members. The team would be at a disadvantage either by lack of experience or the number of sales agents. Moral leadership is a virtue that encompasses strength of character, peace of mind heart, and happiness in life. Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell (2008) have found â€Å"moral leadership to be a character trait of leaders who follow a consistent pattern of behavior based on virtues† (p. 158). A person that posses moral leadership will always rely on their virtues to guide them. Such an individual will remain consistent in the method in which they conduct business. Virtues are often called character traits. Character is defined as the various dimensions of personality either natural or acquired that distinguish one individual from another (Grenz Smith, 2003, p. 18). As an ethical term character refers to the traits of an individual that may be deemed morally blameworthy or praiseworthy. Character traits are usually used in a positive sense to refer to the possession of virtues. Individuals that posses character traits are considered to be as morally upright. Gier (2006) found virtue ethics to be internal and self regulating, thereby sustaining character traits as internal and self-regulating measures of standards (no page). It is important to understand that moral character develops over a period of time. People are born with all kinds of natural tendencies. Some of the tendencies will be positive such as kindness and some of the tendencies will be negative such as jealousy (Athanassoulis, 2006, no page). Natural tendencies can be encouraged and discouraged by leadership such as parent’s teachers and peers. Character development is shaped and molded through a long gradual process of moral education and habitation (Athanassoulis, 2006, no page). Moral education and development are a major part of virtue ethics. Cline suggested in Virtue Ethics: Morality and Character, that a person ask themselves four key questions: What sort of person do I want to be?; What virtues are characteristics of the person I want to be? ; What actions will cultivate the virtues I want to possess? : What actions will be characteristics of the sort of person I want to be? (n. d. , no page). Virtuous actions stem from some particular motivation, which implies correct moral decisions require correct moral motives. Greene (1994) pointed out Benjamin Franklin’s stance on the virtue of resolve in Ben’s Book of Virtues which stated, resolutions were meant to be kept and held sacred by resolving to do what you ought (p. 8). In other words, do without fail what you resolve to do (Greene, 1994, p. 8). Resolutions are usually inner promises people make to themselves to do or follow certain plans of action. Following through with resolutions builds trust and respect in the business world. Companies that fail to honor their resolutions become weak and undesirable to their colleagues and stakeholders. There can be a different set of virtues for almost every aspect of life, such as marriage, religion, and business. For example, with regards to marriage the virtues are trust, respect, love and fidelity. Many Christian’s hold their religious virtues as compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness, patience, and above all love (Col 3:12). Most businesses set of virtues are trust, self-control, empathy, fairness, truthfulness, learning, gratitude, civility, and moral leadership (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 158). Virtue ethics is a moral philosophy that has been proven to focus on one’s internal disposition of values and beliefs. According to Aristotle, virtues are developed through moral education which instills positive character traits by repetitive practicing of virtuous habits. Virtuous people posses balance and harmony between their virtues and vices. In conclusion virtue ethics is a dynamic theory of how to conduct business activities and ultimately life activities. Reference List Aristotle. c. 350 B. C. (1985). Nicomachean Ethics. Trans by Terence Irwin. Indianapolis. IN: Hackett. Athanassoulis, Nafsika. (2006). Virtue ethics. In The Internet Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy online. Retrieved July 26, 2008 from http://www. utm. edu/research/iep/v/virtue. htm Blackburn, Simon. (2001). Being good: A short introduction to ethics. New York, NewYork: Oxford University Press Inc. Cline, Austin. (n. d. ). Virtue ethics: Morality and character. Retrieved June 30, 2008,from http://atheism. about. com/od/ethicalsystems/a/virtueethics. htm Cohen, Randy. (2002). The good the bad the difference: How to tell right fromwrongin everyday situations. New York, NY: Doubleday. Cothran, Helen. (Eds) (2006). Ethics: Opposing viewpoints. Farmington Hills, MI:Greenhaven Press. Engel, Dawn. (2000). Virtues and vices. Retrieved July 26, 2008 fromhttp://www. philosophypages. com/hy/2s. htm Frankena, William. (1980). Thinking about morality. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press. Ferrell, O. C. , Fraedrich, John, Ferrell, Linda. (2008). Individual factors: moralphilosophies and values. In, Business ethics: Ethical decision making and cases(7th ed. ). (P. 156-158) Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Fried, Charles. (1978). Right and wrong. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gier, Nicholas f. (2006). Virtue ethics and character consequentialism. Retrieved fromhttp://www. class. uidaho. edu/ngier/introVE. htm Greene, Karen. (Eds) (1994). Ben’s book of virtues: Ben Franklin’s simple weekly planfor success and happiness. New Hope, PA: New Hope Press. Grenz, Stanley J. Smith, Jay T. (2003). Pocket dictionary of ethics: Over 300 terms ideas clearly defined. Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press. Halberstam, Joshua. (1993). Everyday ethics: Inspired solutions real -life dilemmas. New York, NY: Penguin Group. Hollinger, Dennis P. (2002) Choosing the good. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Kemerling, Garth. Aristotle: Ethics and the virtues. (1997). Retrieved July 28, 2008 from http://www. philosophypages. com/hy/2s. htm Landauer, Jeff Rowlands, Joseph. (2001). Virtue. Retrieved June 30, 2008 fromhttp://wwww. importanceofphilosophy. com/Ethics_Virtue.html Levy, Neil. (2004). What makes us moral? Crossing the boundaries of biology. Oxford,England: Oneworld Publications Lewis, Hunter. (1991). A question of values: Six ways we make the personal choicesthat shape our lives. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers. Plante, Thomas G. PH. D. , ABPP. (2004). Do the right thing: Living ethically in anunethical world. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications Inc. Velasquez, Manuel Andre, Claire Shanks, Thomas Meyer, Michael. (1988). Ethics and virtue. Retrieved fromhttp://www. scu. edu/ethics/practicing/decision/ethicsandvirtue. html.

Glass Structures :: Buildings Building Essays

Glass Structures The name of the structure doesn’t matter as much as the pleasure received; some may call them glass rooms or greenhouses. The uses of these glass structures vary as the weather they see. The structures all contain glass allowing people a place to view the natural environment inside. These structures are mediums in which outside and inside environments are connected. For many people myself included, there is a fantasy of being in an environment that is exotic and surreal. Conservatories started around the nineteenth century, a time of the Golden Age. English architecture, allowed designers to show off a different side, one that was open and enjoyable, in contrast to being useful or industrial. Conservatories were built for the wealth class. Wealth alone would not have brought about conservatories if it were not for the development of technology in heating, ventilation, iron, and glass . In addition, to the development of technology the interest in growing edible fruits, vegetables and exotic species also inspired the development. Palms were the desired tree of type, representing happiness and a symbol of wealth. To grow a palm tree in a cold climate involves having wealth no matter what. Conservatories didn’t develop without having some problems. The most obvious problem being glass, which makes up most of the structure. In the 16 Th. Century bull eyes glass was very expensive. The economics of having a conservatory did not become more realistic until Louis Lucas de Nehou invented sheet glass in 1688. The problem of glass was in the winter when the water would expand between the layers of windows and break. The other issue with glass is sealing it to keep water out and moisture in. Sealing the glass also affects the heating and ventilation. Stoves were most commonly used for heating the building. The cost of heating can differ in cost depending on warm of the green house. The glass house could be kept as warm as the rest of the house, costing a lot of money, or just warm enough to keep it from freezing, costing less. Ventilation can be solved by opening and closing the windows along with elaborate piping systems is desired. Other ways to reduce the air temperature is by having shading. This can be natural such as shade by deciduous trees, or vines. The other option is to have shades made of fabric, wood or another material that can be drawn when needed.

How Is the Extract of Jekyll and Hyde Dramatic

The realisation of the reader from this extract, that Jekyll has only been experimenting with science produces dramatic tension. Throughout the extract, Jekyll confesses that he can only speak ‘by theory alone' regarding his attempts to create the potions to transform himself into Hyde. This represents his constant uncertainty about the results of his experiments. Therefore if even Jekyll, the man performing the experiments, is uncertain of the results, dramatic tension is caused for the reader to discover the results of the experiment. Jekyll also confirms that he doesn’t know anything for certain, as he only speaks what appears ‘to be most probable'. Since the results are uncertain, the reader doesn't know the effect the experiment would have on Jekyll. The reader also discovers that no-one has attempted the experiment before, which builds up tension and suspense about the end result and makes the reader intrigued to continue reading in order to discover it. The unknown of the experiments Jekyll performs builds drama and is dramatic since the unexpected may happen. Stevenson’s imagery of imprisonment in this extract makes it more dramatic since it portrays the idea of Jekyll being trapped. Jekyll presents being Hyde as a disguise ‘like a thick cloak’ in order to abandon his life as Jekyll, which is boring and tiresome, as if he is escaping from prison in order to live a new and free life. The ‘thick cloak’ could represent protection and by suggesting it is like a piece of clothing, this shows that transforming into Hyde is effortless and comforting to do but the constant interchanging between the views of Jekyll, when he is himself, and Hyde is dramatic. Jekyll likens the potion to a drug by saying that it had ‘no discriminating action’, explaining that it is addicting once he has tried it. However it then became impossible to prevent the change describing it as falling into ‘slavery’ and by being trapped this leads to the extract becoming tense and exciting. Metaphors are used through the extract to provide imagery for the reader. Jekyll explains that Hyde was pure evil and that it was ‘written broadly and plainly on his face’ suggesting that when people saw Hyde, it was immediately clear that he was a cruel person. By using this metaphor, Stevenson is attempting to show the personality of Hyde through his face and that his characteristics were clear from his physical appearance. After drinking the potion, Jekyll ‘had come to the fatal cross-roads’ which is a crucial moment in the novel for him, as he can choose only choose option suggested by the ‘cross roads’. This is dramatic because as there is a decision to be made which is extremely important, this builds suspense, especially as the decision carried the possibility of death which requires Jekyll to ponder his options carefully. Since the cross roads are ‘fatal’ this may imply that the cross roads will lead to disaster or death. It could also indicate that the cross roads were unavoidable as it was fate that determined Jekyll would have to make this decision. The dangerous decision that has been forced upon Jekyll makes the extract dramatic, since his decision may lead to his death. The use of violent and dramatic language by Stevenson in the extract increases the pace of the novel and makes it more engaging and exciting. Jekyll is uncertain about the result of him drinking his potion which creates tension and by ‘hurrying back to my cabinet’ this shows that there is urgency from Jekyll to discover the effects of the potion which leads to the extract being exciting and dramatic and it is building up tension. When Jekyll had transformed into Hyde he was aware that people were frightened of him and took an instant dislike. He said that people couldn’t approach him without ‘a visible misgiving of the flesh’ and by using violent language to describe their reaction, it demonstrates the severity of the cruelty that Hyde possessed. By saying ‘the flesh’ instead of skin, this shows that people were unable to hide beneath their skin, the reactions they felt regarding Hyde. This language engages the reader with the emotions felt by the characters towards Hyde, producing anxiety among the reader resulting in a dramatic confrontation that is described. The exposure of many mysteries is revealed all at once which creates a dramatic atmosphere. In the extract we learn that Edward Hyde ‘was pure evil’ which is the reason behind people such as Utterson and Enfield ‘taking an instant dislike to him’ as we learn previously. We also discover the motive for Jekyll to transform into Hyde which is because he ‘began to profit by the strange immunities’ of his position, as he is taking advantage of the freedom he has when Jekyll is Hyde. The answers to the questions which were formed by the reader earlier in the novel were slowly being revealed throughout it. However in this short extract, lots of answers are provided to the reader from Jekyll, because he is explaining the actions of both himself and Mr Hyde. Also since the novel is told in third but in this extract it is in the first person perspective, it leaves few questions remaining, allowing the reader to piece together Utterson’s perception. This therefore results in dramatic tension as the reader now understands the actions Jekyll has taken and is intrigued to discover the fate of Jekyll and Hyde.

The World Of The Buddha - 1381 Words

Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, who lived in northern India from 560 to 480 B.C, founded Buddhism Buddhism, one of the major religions of the world. The time of the Buddha was one of social and religious change, marked by the further advance of Aryan civilization into the Ganges Plain, the development of trade and cities, the breakdown of old tribal structures, and the rise of a whole spectrum of new religious movements that responded to the demands of the times (Cones 10). These movements were derived from the Brahmanic tradition of Hinduism but were also reactions against it. Of the new sects, Buddhism was the most successful and eventually spread throughout India and most of Asia. Today it is common to divide Buddhism into two main branches. The Theravada, or Way of the Elders, is the more conservative of the two; it is dominant in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand (Berry 23). The Mahayana, or Great Vehicle, is more diverse and liberal; it is found mainly in Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, and among Tibetan peoples, where it is distinguished by its emphasis on the Buddhist Tantras (Berry 24). In recent times both branches, as well as Tibetan Buddhism, have gained followers in the West. It is virtually impossible to tell what the Buddhist population of the world is today; statistics are difficult to obtain because persons might have Buddhist beliefs and engage in Buddhist rites while maintaining folk or other religions such as Shinto, Confucian, Taoist, and Hindu (CorlessShow MoreRelatedWorld Religion Studies of Siddhartha or the Buddha1344 Words   |  5 Pagesenlightenment, Siddhartha or the Buddha, came across four sights that changed his thinking. 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